other
flowers, animals, birds, and Jain ascetics, who believed in not hurting
any living thing. These were mostly painted in Gujarat and the Rajputana
area of Western India, around the 13th and 16th century.The almost infinite styles of the Indian Miniature Artform are classified into various schools. The more prominent among them are the Jain paintings, Rajasthani, Mughal, and the Pahari schools. These are then further classified into the various other forms, such as the Basholi, Kangra, Kalighat and the Sikh styles.
These are manuscripts on paper about the lives
of Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, and of other Jain saints. Of these,
the Kalpasutra of Bhadrabahu is the most popular. The
illustrations consist of lotuses and other
flowers, animals, birds, and Jain ascetics, who believed in not hurting
any living thing. These were mostly painted in Gujarat and the Rajputana
area of Western India, around the 13th and 16th century.
The same paintings are illustrated again and again - Mahavira as a child lying by his mother, Mahavira seated under a tree against a rocky landscape, Mahavira standing by while God Indra takes his royal robes and gives him monastic clothes. The drawing is angular, figures are shown in three-quarters profile, the noses are sharp, the fish eyes are ferocious. And one eye is extended in a peculiar way, like a 'further eye', jutting out of the profile.
The background color is generally a strong red. Yellows and blues are frequently used for the clothes. For contrast, black is used for hair and white to highlight purity. The lapis lazuli blue of Persia, as well as certain Iranian forms, came into these paintings, as trade grew between the two regions.
The Jain Miniature style spread all over India. The fierce fish eyes and sharp noses are visible in the Palm-leaf manuscripts of the Gita Govinda of Orissa. Jain influence also reached the Buddhist temples of Pagan in Burma. And it may have inspired some of the folk art of the Punjab Himalayas, where the passionate Basholi painting sprang up in the late 17th century, with the same fish eyes, sharp noses and savage ferocity.
The
Mughal SchoolHumayun, second in the line of Mughal rulers, is acclaimed to be the first documented patron of Mughal painting. It was under him that the Dastan-i-Amir-Hamza was created. In these works, the first influence of Persian art is visible. Thus, the Persian, Central Asian and Indian elements mingled together and out of this synthesis, a new style, known as 'Mughal Style' was born.
The Persian tradition is visible through the use of brilliant colors, elaborate embellishment of costumes and the lavish use of gold. We can also see the Persian deep blue skies flat in tone, occasionally with a few birds or stars, hills with a river or a storm, and trees laden with flowers. The frequently used figures imposed on one another or a group of figures over a landscape also suggest the Persian influence.
The Indian traits are noticeable in the gestures of hand and face, elongated eyes, long straight tree trunks, stylised trees and leaves, and also by the water surface covered with lotus flower or shown by zig-zag lines with a fish or two. The fusion of the Indian and Persian styles had, in fact, begun even before the advent of Babur (the first Mughal emperor) and the earliest example appear in the illustrated pages of the Niamat-nama, a cookery book written in around 1500 A.D.
Also, the introduction of perspectives and three dimensional effects, and that of calligraphy and occasional use of the dragon point to Western an Chinese influence. Thus we see that the Mughal period was the golden age for the art of Indian Miniatures, as many new styles developed and the particular artform flourished.
The
Rajasthani KalamThe ancient Indian tradition of painting had survived, in a modified form, in many areas including Rajasthan. Jain palm-leaf manuscripts, book illustrations inspired by Persian styles and Hindu frescoes, had flourished side by side.
At the start of the 17th century, when relations between the Mughal and Rajput Court became closer, many Mughal paintings travelled to Mewar (Rajasthan) and made a permanent impact. The themes were taken from Hindu religious poetry. The rich, intense folk colors remained. But the traditional painting on walls yielded to miniatures and the general finish of Mughal paintings came in. Trees, plants, birds, animals and rocks began to be painted as in nature. In portraits, the Mughal style of shading came into vogue and the costumes of the imperial court appeared. The whole atmosphere became polished in the manner of the Agra Kalam (Mughal School).
What strikes one most about Rajasthani miniature painting is the intensity of colors. A characteristic of these miniatures is often the use of compartmental pictures in which space is divided into bands and rectangles and used as frames for figures and groups. These characteristics, along with the Mughal influence, can be seen in the various subsequent offshoots such as the Bundi, Kotah, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Kishangarh, and Kachhawa styles.
The Mughal and Rajasthani school, along with the Pahari (Hilly) paintings are the most important as far as contemporary Indian miniature art is concerned.
As in other parts of India, the ancient tradition of painting in modified form in Kashmir, and the adjoining hill areas of the Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. A number of pictures of various dates from these areas, have come to public during the last two to three generations. These have been collectively called Pahari paintings.
As the distance between one little kingdom and another in the
Punjab Himalayas was comparatively short, the artists and pictures travelled
from one state to another frequently. So, though some styles are distinct, no
one can define the differences clearly. Several links are not available and
no one knows exactly how the mutual influences spread from one kingdom to another.
All the same, we have a fair 
amount
of material from states like Basholi, Jammu, Guler, Kangra, Chamba, Garhwal,
etc.
The main impulse seems to have been given by contact with the Mughal court but there seems to have been a folk base. Otherwise the surviving paintings of Basholi would not be so different from the Imperial Mughal style.
Basholi : The earliest known Pahari paintings are from the time of Raja Kirpal Pal (1678-1693) from Basholi. Reds, vermilions, browns, blues, yellows and greens, burst out from these pictures. The profile of these figures is fierce, almost as in the Jain Kalpasutras. And they have big fish eyes. The paintings are on a flat two-dimensional plane. The themes are mostly of the princes of the region, and illustrations of Hindu religious books, like the Gita Govinda and Bhagvada Purana. Most of these paintings are based on the Krishna theme, who is also the most popular Hindu deity.
Kangra : The best of the Mughal technique
of drawing and the outburst of romantic feelings with religious and spiritual
fervour found a happy blend in Pahari miniatures and it further culminated
into the Kangra Kalam. The idiom 'Kangra ki Kalam' which is now the synonym
of the most 
celebrated
paintings of India, was first used by Lockwood Kipling, the then Principal
of the Mayo school of Art in 1887.
Firmly administered by Ghamand Chand since 1761, Kangra reached the pinnacles of its glory during the reign of his grandson Sansar Chand II (1775-1825) who was a great patron of performing arts and the miniature paintings. These paintings were subsequently classified under an independent substyle of Pahari miniatures as Kangra Kalam.
The graceful treatment of feminine charm and superb rendering of nature are the hallmarks of Kangra paintings. The women are generally slim with pleasing curves and contours and possess an innocent but expressive face. The creepers climbing or embracing the trees seem to speak the language of love which is further pronounced by lovely night scenes either with moon and stars or with dark clouds.
The Krishnalila remains the most favourite theme of the Kangra Kalam. Lord Krishna is always the focal point whether he is shown as an infant, a lad or a young man. When more than one episodes are shown in a painting, the personality of Krishna predominates and steals away the show.
The Rajasthani style of arhitecture is amply reflected in the buildings as shown in the paintings and the softened Mughal impact is marked in earings and male beards. The colors used by the artist represent a wide range which are attractive but soothing. Extra brilliant colors have been avoided, instead, lighter and subdued tones have been preferred. The color scheme often accentuates the sentiments expressed and harmonises with the theme and its surroundings.
The glory of Kangra crossed its geographical limits and artists in other places also followed the strong idiom, which led to such offshoots as Kangra and Guler and the Kangra Kalam continues to influence contemporary miniature Indian art.
The following are few of the other
popular Indian art schools, which are directly relevant to the Indian art
of Miniature Paintings
Tanjore Glass Paintings : In south India, at the end of the eighteenth century, the impact of foreign armies, particularly the French and the British, had hindered temple building. But the last spurt of inspiration, given by the Maratha Maharajas, Shahaji and Sarfoji II, to cultural activities in their capital Tanjore revived the art of dance, encouraged music and also brought about a hero-worship of the Maharaja and the courtiers in paintings on glass.
Some of the paintings of Sarfoji II, of familiar personages and of favourite divinities like Krishna, have survived in vivid colors on glass. They are in bold outlines, with an emphasis on decorative jewellery, done in a bizarre montage technique and have the naive charm of near-folk painting.
Kalighat Paintings : Artisans from the vicinity of the Kalighat temple of Kali developed this form in the early 19th century. They painted, on hand made paper, the flowers and plants of India in a naturalistic manner, in large contours with curvaceous lines, pictures of Durga, Shiva, Rama, Sita, Krishna, as also the scenes of Calcutta life. These pictures may have been influenced by English prints, which were being sold in the markets. Shading, which was rare in Indian paintings, appears.
These pictures in bold assertive lines and bright colors, are nearer the original Patuas, but in a new style. The few families which painted in this startling new Kalam have died out and the Kalighat artists are now a memory. But so marked was the emphasis on the Indian curvaceous line that they remain vividly Indian with their lyrical contours and festive colors.
Ivory Paintings : Miniatures in ivory really flourished in the Mughal period, under royal patronage. These are high quality and extremely fine works, commonly depicting the royal courts, hunting expeditions, love scenes, portraits, etc. The colors used are transparent which reveals the creamy ivory surface. Today, ivory painting is a dying art because of the international ban on the use of ivory.
"Gods kill and drop down (in hell) the king who does not protect the Brahmin, who does not practice austerities and a rich man who is not charitable."
- Shukarneeti, 1.120
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